Abortion: A Woman Has the Right to Choose Essay -- Argumentative Essay,

The right to choose what happens to YOU is an American right that every person should be allotted. Though the First Amendment clearly states that all Americans have the right to freedom of speech, the topic of abortions continues to be challenged. Abortions poses moral and ethically challenges that many Americans ponder over. The major two sides involved in this is heated issue is â€Å"Pro-Life† vs. â€Å"Pro-Choice†, pro-life being against and pro-choice supporting abortions. This research paper will examine the many different court cases affecting abortions and the two different arguments What is an Abortion? â€Å"An abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by the removal or expulsion of a fetus or embryo from the uterus before it is viable†, (Grimes, 2007). An abortion can happen for two different ways, either because of problems during pregnancy or by inducing one because of choice. Abortions usually refer to the induced terminations while terminations related to medical issues are commonly called miscarriages. Obviously the controversy comes into play when dealing with the induced terminations. †Induced abortion has a long history and has been facilitated by various methods including herbal abortifacients, the use of sharpened tools, physical trauma, and other traditional methods. Contemporary medicine utilizes medications and surgical procedures to induce abortion. The legality, prevalence, cultural status, and religious status of abortion vary substantially around the world. In many parts of the world there is prominent and divisive public controversy over the ethical and legal issues of abortion. Abortion and abortion-related issues feature prominently in the national politics in many nations, often involving the opposing pro-lif... ...stitution and what it means today: Supreme Court decisions of 1973, 1974, and 1975, page 36 (Princeton University Press 1985): "The abortion cases afforded the Supreme Court another opportunity to caress the Ninth Amendment without embracing it." 3. Chrisrs. (March 2011). Belotti vs. Baird. Bullentin; For Law Students.com. Retrieved from http://4lawnotes.com/showthread.php/2613-Bellotti-v.-Baird 4. Graber, Mark A. Rethinking Abortion: Equal Choice, the Constitution and Reproductive Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999. 5. Lowdermilk, Perry, Cashion, and Alden. (2012). Maternity and Women’s Health Care. Elsevier Mosby. St. Louis, Missouri. 6. Potts, Malcolm et al. Abortion, page 347 (1977). 7. â€Å"Webster v. Reproductive Health Services." West's Encyclopedia of American Law. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. 2 Dec. 2011 .

The Main Problems of Lexicography

The main problems of lexicography The most burning issues of lexicography are connected with the selection of head-words, the arrangement and contents of the vocabulary entry, the principles of sense definitions and the semantic and functional classification of words. In the first place it is the problem of how far a general descriptive dictionary, whether unilingual or bilingual, should admit the historical element. In fact, the term â€Å"current usage† is disconcertingly elastic, it may, for instance, be stretched to include all words and senses used by W.Shakespeare, as he is commonly read, or include only those of the fossilised words that are kept in some set expressions or familiar quotations, e. g. shuffled off this mortal coil (â€Å"Hamlet†), where coil means ‘turmoil’ (of life). For the purpose of a dictionary, which must not be too bulky, selection between scientific and technical terms is also a very important task. It is a debatable point whet her a unilingual explanatory dictionary should strive to cover all the words of the language, including neologisms, nonce-words, slang, etc. nd note with impartial accuracy all the words actually used by English people; or whether, as the great English lexicographer of the 18th century Samuel Johnson used to think, it should be preceptive, and (viewed from the other side) prohibitive. Dictionary-makers should attempt to improve and stabilise the English vocabulary according to the best classical samples and advise the readers on preferable usage. A distinctly modern criterion in selection of entries is the frequency of the words to be included. This is especially important for certain lines of practical work in preparing graded elementary textbooks.When the problem of selection is settled, there is the question as to which of the selected units have the right to a separate entry and which are to be included under one common head-word. These are, in other words, the questions of sepa rateness and sameness of words. The first deals with syntagmatic boundaries of word-units and has to solve such questions as whether each other is a group of two separate words to be treated separately under the head-words each and other, or whether each other is a unit deserving a special entry (compare also: one another).Need such combinations as boiling point, carbon paper, department store, phone box be sub-entered under their constituents? If so, under which of them? Or, perhaps, it will be more convenient for those who use the dictionary if these were placed as separate main entries consisting of a nominal compound or a phrase. As to the sameness, this deals with paradigmatic boundaries. How many entries are justified for hound'? COD has two — one for the noun, and the other for the verb: ‘to chase (as) with hounds’; the verb and the noun are thus treated as homonyms. Chambers’s Twentieth Century Dictionary† combines them under one head-word, i . e. it takes them as variants of the same word (hence the term â€Å"sameness†). The problem is even more complicated with variants belonging to the same part of speech. This problem is best illustrated by the pun that has already been discussed elsewhere in this book: Mind you, I don’t mind minding the children if the children mind me (Understand, I don’t object to taking care of the children if the children obey me). Here the dictionary-maker is confronted with the problem of sameness.Should mind be considered one word with several semantic variants, and take one entry? Or is it more convenient to represent it as several words? The difference in the number of entries for an equal bulk of vocabulary may also depend on a different approach to the regularly formed derivatives, like those with -er, -ing, -ness, and -ly. These are similar to grammatical endings in their combining possibilities and semantic regularity. The derivation is so regular, and the meaning and class of these derivatives are so easily deduced that they are sometimes sidered not worth an entry.That is why the definition of the scope of a dictionary is not quite as simple as it might appear at first sight. There exist almost unsurmountable difficulties to a neat statistical evaluation. Some publishers state the number of entries in a subtitle, others even claim for the total coverage with the exception of very special terms. It must be remembered, however, that without a generally accepted standard for settling the problems of sameness and separateness no meaningful evaluation of the scope of any particular dictionary is possible.Besides in the case of a living language the vocabulary is not stable, and the attitude of lexicographers to archaisms and neologisms varies. The arrangement of the vocabulary entry presents many problems, of which the most important are the differentiation and the sequence of various meanings of a polysemantic word. A historical dictionary (the Oxford Dictionary, for instance) is primarily concerned with the development of the English vocabulary. It arranges various senses chronologically, first comes the etymology, then the earliest meanings marked by the label obs. — obsolete.The etymologies are either comparative or confined to a single language. The development is documented by illustrative quotations, ranging from the oldest to recent appearances of the word in question. A descriptive dictionary dealing with current usage has to face its own specific problems. It has to apply a structural point of view and give precedence to the most important meanings. But how is the most important meaning determined upon? So far each compiler was guided by his own personal preference. An objective procedure would be to obtain data of statistical counts.But counting the frequency of different meanings of the same word is far more difficult than counting the frequency of its forms. It is therefore not by chance that up to now many counts have been undertaken only for word forms, irrespective of meaning. Also, the interdependence of meanings and their relative importance within the semantic structure of the word do not remain the same. They change almost incessantly, so that the task of establishing their relative frequency would have to be repeated very often. The constant revisions necessary would make the publication of dictionaries very expensive.It may also be argued that an arrangement of meanings according to frequency would sometimes conceal the ties and relationship between various elements of the semantic structure. Nevertheless some semantic counts have been achieved and the lexicographers profited by them. Thus, in preparing high-school English dictionaries the staff under chief editor C. L. Barnhart was aided by semantic counts which Dr E. L. Thorndike had made of current standard literature, from children’s books to â€Å"The Encyclopaedia Britannica†. The count according to C. L. Barnhart was of enormous importance in compiling their dictionaries, but the lexicographer admits that counts are only one of the criteria necessary for selecting meanings and entries, and that more dictionary evidence is needed, namely typical quotations for each meaning. Dictionary evidence normally exists in the form of quotation slips constituting raw material for word treatment and filed under their appropriate head-words. In editing new dictionaries the lexicographers cannot depend only on the scholarly editions such as OED.In order to meet the demands of their readers, they have to sample the reading of the public for whom the dictionary is meant. This textual reference has to be scrupulously examined, so as to account for new words and meanings making their way into the language. Here again some quantitative criteria must be established. If a word or meaning occurs in several different sources over a wide range of magazines and books during a considerable period of time, it may be worth including even into a college dictionary.The preface to â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary†, for instance, states that its authors find that sense development cannot be presented in every word, because obsolete words are as a rule omitted. Only occasionally do they place at the beginning a rare but still current sense, if it can throw light on the more common senses that follow, or forms the connecting link with the etymology. The etymologies are given throughout, but otherwise the compilers do not seem to keep to any consistent principle and are guided by what they think is the order of logical connection, familiarity or importance.E. L. Thorndike formulates the following principles: â€Å"Other things being equal, literal uses come before figurative, general uses before special, common uses before rare, and easily understandable uses before difficult, and to sum up: that arrangement is best for any word which helps the learner most. † A synchronic di ctionary should also show the distribution of every word. It has been traditionally done by labelling words as belonging to a certain part of speech, and by noting some special cases of grammatically or lexically bound meanings.Thus, the word spin is labelled in â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary† as v. t. & i. , which gives a general idea of its distribution; its various senses are shown in connection with words that may serve as subject or object, e. g. : â€Å"2. (of spider, silkworm, etc. ) make (web, gossamer, cocoon, or abs. ) by extrusion of fine viscous thread †¦ 10. spun glass (spun when heated into filaments that remain pliant when cold); spun gold, silver (gold, silver thread prepared for weaving †¦ ). † This technique is gradually being improved upon, and compilers strive to provide more detailed information on these points. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary †¦ † by A. S. Hornby, E. V. Gatenby and H. Wakefield supplies informati on on the syntactical distribution of each verb. In their â€Å"Notes on Syntax† the compilers state that one who is learning English as a foreign language is apt to form sentences by analogy, which at times may lead him into error. For instance, the student must be warned against taking the use of the verb tell in the sentence Please tell me the meaning as a model for the word explain, because *Please, explain me the meaning would be ungrammatical. For his purpose they provide a table of 25 verb patterns and supply the numerical indications in each verb entry. This gives the student the necessary guidance. Indications are also supplied as to which nouns and which semantic varieties of nouns may be used in the plural. This helps the student to avoid mistakes like *interesting informations. Many dictionaries indicate the different stylistic levels to which the words belong: colloquial, technical, poetical, rhetorical, archaic, familiar, vulgar or slang, and their expressive co louring: emphatic, ironical, diminutive, facetious.This is important, because a mere definition does not show these data. There is always a difference in style between the dictionary word and its definition. The word digs is a slang word but its definition ‘lodgings’ is not. Giving these data modern dictionary-makers strive to indicate the nature of the context in which the word may occur. The problem is also relevant for bilingual dictionaries and is carefully presented in the â€Å"New English-Russian Dictionary† edited by I. R. Galperin. A third group of lexicographic problems is the problem of definitions in a unilingual dictionary.The explanation of meaning may be achieved by a group of synonyms which together give a fairly general idea; but one synonym is never sufficient for the purpose, because no absolute synonyms exist. Besides, if synonyms are the only type of explanation used, the reader will be placed in a vicious circle of synonymic references, with not a single word actually explained. Definitions serve the purpose much better. These are of two main types. If they are only concerned with words as speech material, the definition is called linguistic. If they are concerned with things for which the words are names, they are termed encyclopaedic.American dictionaries are for the most part traditionally encyclopaedic, which accounts for so much attention paid to graphic illustration. They furnish their readers with far more information about facts and things than their British counterparts, which are more linguistic and more fundamentally occupied with purely lexical data (as contrasted to r e a 1 i a), with the grammatical properties of words, their components, their stylistic features, etc. Opinions differ upon the optimum proportion of linguistic and encyclopaedic material.Very interesting considerations on this subject are due to Alf Sommerfeldt. He thinks that definitions must be based on the fact that the meanings of words render complex notions which may be analysed (cf. componental analysis) into several elements rendered by other words. He emphasises, for instance, that the word pedestrian is more aptly defined as ‘a person who goes or travels on foot’ than as ‘one who goes or travels on foot’. The remark appears valuable, because a definition of this type shows the lexico-grammatical type to which the word belongs and consequently its distribution.It also helps to reveal the system of the vocabulary. Much too often, however, one sees in dictionaries no attention paid to the difference in distribution between the defined and the defining word. The meaning of the word may be also explained by examples, i. e. contextually. The term and its definition are here fused. For example, diagonal is explained by the following context where only this term can occur: A square has two diagonals, and each of them divides the square into two right-angled isosceles triangles. Very often th is type can be changed into a standard form, i. . A diagonal is one of the two lines †¦ , etc. One more problem is the problem of whether all entries should be defined or whether it is possible to have the so-called â€Å"run-ons† for derivative words in which the root-form is readily recognised (such as absolutely or resolutely). In fact, whereas resolutely may be conveniently given as a -ly run-on after resolute, there is a meaning problem for absolutely. One must take into consideration that in colloquial speech absolutely means ‘quite so’, ‘yes’ which cannot be deduced from the meaning of the corresponding adjective.HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH AND AMERICAN LEXICOGRAPHY Although, as we have seen from the preceding paragraph, there is as yet no coherent doctrine in English lexicography, its richness and variety are everywhere admitted and appreciated. Its history is in its way one of the most remarkable developments in linguistics, and i s therefore worthy of special attention. In the following pages a short outline of its various phases is given. A need for a dictionary or glossary has been felt in the cultural growth of many civilised peoples at a fairly early period.The history of dictionary-making for the English language goes as far back as the Old English period where its first traces are found in the form of glosses of religious books with interlinear translation from Latin. Regular bilingual English-Latin dictionaries were already in existence in the 15th century. The unilingual dictionary is a comparatively recent type. The first unilingual English dictionary, explaining words by English equivalents, appeared in 1604. It was meant to explain difficult words occurring in books.Its title was â€Å"A Table Alphabeticall, containing and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usuall English words borrowed from the Hebrew, Greeke, Latine or French†. The little volume of 120 pages explaining ab out 3000 words was compiled by one Robert Cawdrey, a schoolmaster. Other books followed, each longer than the preceding one. The first attempt at a dictionary including all the words of the language, not only the difficult ones, was made by Nathaniel Bailey who in 1721 published the first edition of his â€Å"Universal Etymological English Dictionary†.He was the first to include pronunciation and etymology. Big explanatory dictionaries were created in France and Italy before they appeared for the English language. Learned academies on the continent had been established to preserve the purity of their respective languages. This was also the purpose of Dr Samuel Johnson’s famous Dictionary published in 1755. 1 The idea of purity involved a tendency to oppose change, and S. Johnson’s Dictionary was meant to establish the English language in its classical form, to preserve it in all its glory as used by J. Dryden, A.Pope, J. Addison and their contemporaries. In conf ormity with the social order of his time, S. Johnson attempted to â€Å"fix† and regulate English. This was the period of much discussion about the necessity of â€Å"purifying† and â€Å"fixing† English, and S. Johnson wrote that every change was undesirable, even a change for the best. When his work was accomplished, however, he had to admit he had been wrong and confessed in his preface that â€Å"no dictionary of a living tongue can ever be perfect, since while it is hastening to publication, some words are budding and some falling away†.The most important innovation of S. Johnson’s Dictionary was the introduction of illustrations of the meanings of the words â€Å"by examples from the best writers†, as had been done before him in the dictionary of the French Academy. Since then such illustrations have become a â€Å"sine qua non† in lexicography; S. Johnson, however, only mentioned the authors and never gave any specific referenc es for his quotations. Most probably he reproduced some of his quotations from memory, not always very exactly, which would have been unthinkable in modern lexicology.The definitions he gave were often very ingenious. He was called â€Å"a skilful definer†, but sometimes he preferred to give way to sarcasm or humour and did not hesitate to be partial in his definitions. The epithet he gave to lexicographer, for instance, is famous even in our time: a lexicographer was ‘a writer of dictionaries, a harmless drudge †¦ ’. The dictionary dealt with separate words only, almost no set expressions were entered. Pronunciation was not marked, because S.Johnson was keenly aware of the wide variety of the English pronunciation and thought it impossible to set up a standard there; he paid attention only to those aspects of vocabulary where he believed he could improve linguistic usage. S. Johnson’s influence was tremendous. He remained the unquestionable authority on style and diction for more than 75 years. The result was a lofty bookish style which received the name of â€Å"Johnsonian† or â€Å"Johnsonese†. As to pronunciation, attention was turned to it somewhat later. A pronouncing dictionary that must be mentioned first was published in 1780 by Thomas Sheridan, grandfather of the great dramatist.In 1791 appeared â€Å"The Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language† by John Walker, an actor. The vogue of this second dictionary was very great, and in later publications Walker’s pronunciations were inserted into S. Johnson’s text — a further step to a unilingual dictionary in its present-day form. The Golden Age of English lexicography began in the last quarter of the 19th century when the English Philological Society started work on compiling what is now known as â€Å"The Oxford English Dictionary† (OED), but was originally named â€Å"New English Dictionary on Historical Principles†.It is still occasionally referred to as NED. The purpose of this monumental work is to trace the development of English words from their form in Old English, and if they were not found in Old English, to show when they were introduced into the language, and also to show the development of each meaning and its historical relation to other meanings of the same word. For words and meanings which have become obsolete the date of the latest occurrence is given. All this is done by means of dated quotations ranging from the oldest to recent appearances of the words in question.The English of G. Chaucer, of the â€Å"Bible† and of W. Shakespeare is given as much attention as that of the most modern authors. The dictionary includes spellings, pronunciations and detailed etymologies. The completion of the work required more than 75 years. The result is a kind of encyclopaedia of language used not only for reference purposes but also as a basis for lexicol ogical research. The lexicographic concept here is very different from the prescriptive tradition of Dr S. Johnson: the lexicographer is the objective recorder of the language.The purpose of OED, as stated by its editors, has nothing to do with prescription or proscription of any kind. The conception of this new type of dictionary was born in a discussion at the English Philological Society. It was suggested by Frederick Furnivall, later its second titular editor, to Richard Trench, the author of the first book on lexicology of the English language. Richard Trench read before the society his paper â€Å"On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries†, and that was how the big enterprise was started.At once the Philological Society set to work to gather the material, volunteers offered to help by collecting quotations. Dictionary-making became a sort of national enterprise. A special committee prepared a list of books to be read and assigned them to the volunteers, sending t hem also special standard slips for quotations. By 1881 the number of readers was 800, and they sent in many thousands of slips. The tremendous amount of work done by these volunteers testifies to the keen interest the English take in their language.The first part of the Dictionary appeared in 1884 and the last in 1928. Later it was issued in twelve volumes and in order to accommodate new words a three volume Supplement was issued in 1933. These volumes were revised in the seventies. Nearly all the material of the original Supplement was retained and a large body of the most recent accessions to the English language added. The principles, structure and scope of â€Å"The Oxford English Dictionary†, its merits and demerits are discussed in the most comprehensive treaty by L. V. Malakhovsky. Its prestige is enormous.It is considered superior to corresponding major dictionaries for other languages. The Oxford University Press published different abridged versions. â€Å"The Sho rter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles† formerly appeared in two volumes, now printed on thinner paper it is bound in one volume of 2,538 pages. It differs from the complete edition in that it contains a smaller number of quotations. It keeps to all the main principles of historical presentation and covers not only the current literary and colloquial English but also its previous stages.Words are defined and illustrated with key quotations. â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English† was first published in 1911, i. e. before the work on the main version was completed. It is not a historical dictionary but one of current usage. A still shorter form is â€Å"The Pocket Oxford Dictionary†. Another big dictionary, also created by joined effort of enthusiasts, is Joseph Wright’s â€Å"English Dialect Dictionary†. Before this dictionary could be started upon, a thorough study of English dialects had to be completed.With this a im in view W. W. Skeat, famous for his â€Å"Etymological English Dictionary† founded the English Dialect Society as far back as 1873. Dialects are of great importance for the historical study of the language. In the 19th century they were very pronounced though now they are almost disappearing. The Society existed till 1896 and issued 80 publications, mostly monographs. Curiously enough, the first American dictionary of the English language was compiled by a man whose name was also Samuel Johnson. Samuel Johnson Jr. a Connecticut schoolmaster, published in 1798 a small book entitled â€Å"A School Dictionary†. This book was followed in 1800 by another dictionary by the same author, which showed already some signs of Americanisation. It included, for instance, words like tomahawk and wampum, borrowed into English from the Indian languages. It was Noah Webster, universally considered to be the father of American lexicography, who emphatically broke away from English idi om, and embodied in his book the specifically American usage of his time.His great work, â€Å"The American Dictionary of the English Language†, appeared in two volumes in 1828 and later sustained numerous revised and enlarged editions. In many respects N. Webster follows the lead of Dr S. Johnson (the British lexicographer). But he has also improved and corrected many of S. Johnson’s etymologies and his definitions are often more exact. N. Webster attempted to simplify the spelling and pronunciation that were current in the USA of the period. He devoted many years to the collection of words and the preparation of more accurate definitions. N.Webster realised the importance of language for the development of a nation, and devoted his energy to giving the American English the status of an independent language, distinct from British English. At that time the idea was progressive as it helped the unification of separate states into one federation. The tendency became reac tionary later on, when some modern linguists like H. Mencken shaped it into the theory of a separate American language, not only different from British English, but surpassing it in efficiency and therefore deserving to dominate and supersede all the languages of the world.Even if we keep within purely linguistic or purely lexical concepts, we shall readily see that the difference is not so great as to warrant American English the rank of a separate language, not a variant of English (see p. 265). The set of morphemes is the same. Some words have acquired a new meaning on American soil and this meaning has or has not penetrated into British English. Other words kept their earlier meanings that are obsolete and not used in Great Britain. As civilisation progressed different names were given to new inventions on either side of the Atlantic. Words were borrowed from different Indian languages and from Spanish.All these had to be recorded in a dictionary and so accounted for the existen ce of specific American lexicography. The world of today with its ever-growing efficiency and intensity of communication and personal contacts, with its press, radio and television creates conditions which tend to foster not an isolation of dialects and variants but, on the contrary, their mutual penetration and integration. Later on, the title â€Å"International Dictionary of the English Language† was adopted, and in the latest edition not Americanisms but words not used in America (Britishisms) are marked off.N. Webster’s dictionary enjoyed great popularity from its first editions. This popularity was due not only to the accuracy and clarity of definitions but also to the richness of additional information of encyclopaedic character, which had become a tradition in American lexicography. As a dictionary N. Webster’s book aims to treat the entire vocabulary of the language providing definitions, pronunciation and etymology. As an encyclopaedia it gives explana tions about things named, including scientific and technical subjects.It does so more concisely than a full-scale encyclopaedia, but it is worthy of note that the definitions are as a rule up-to-date and rigorous scientifically. Soon after N. Webster’s death two printers and booksellers of Massachusetts, George and Charles Merriam, secured the rights of his dictionary from his family and started the publication of revised single volume editions under the name â€Å"Merriam-Webster†. The staff working for the modern editions is a big institution numbering hundreds of specialists in different branches of human activity.It is important to note that the name â€Å"Webster† may be attached for publicity’s sake by anyone to any dictionary. Many publishers concerned with their profits have taken this opportunity to issue dictionaries called â€Å"Webster’s†. Some of the books so named are cheaply-made reprints of old editions, others are said to be entirely new works. The practice of advertising by coupling N. Webster’s name to a dictionary which has no connection with him, continues up to the present day. A complete revision of N. Webster’s dictionary is achieved with a certain degree of regularity.The recent â€Å"Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language† has called forth much comment, both favourable and unfavourable. It has been greatly changed as compared with the previous edition, in word selection as well as in other matters. The emphasis is on the present-day state of the language. The number of illustrative quotations is increased. To accommodate the great number of new words and meanings without increasing the bulk of the volume, the editors excluded much encyclopaedic material.The other great American dictionaries are the â€Å"Century Dictionary†, first completed in 1891; â€Å"Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary†, first completed in 1895; the â€Å"Random House Dictionary of the English Language†, completed in 1967; â€Å"The Heritage Illustrated Dictionary of the English Language†, first published in 1969, and C. L. Barnhart’s et al. â€Å"The World Book Dictionary† presenting a synchronic review of the language in the 20th century. The first three continue to appear in variously named subsequent editions including abridged versions.Many small handy popular dictionaries for office, school and home use are prepared to meet the demand in reference books on spelling, pronunciation, meaning and usage. An adequate idea of the dictionaries cannot be formed from a mere description and it is no substitute for actually using them. To conclude we would like to mention that for a specialist in linguistics and a teacher of foreign languages systematic work with a good dictionary in conjunction with his reading is an absolute necessity.

Commonly Confused Homophones Fir and Fur

The words fir and fur  are  homophones: they sound alike but have different meanings. The noun fir refers to an evergreen tree with needle-shaped leaves. The noun fur refers to the soft, hairy coat of an animal or to a garment made of fur. Examples In an area where spruce and fir mingle with quaking aspen, in a cool shady well-watered place, I discover a blue columbine, rarest and loveliest of mountain flowers. (Edward Abbey)The longing for the silences of the Cascades, the smell of fir boughs at night, the touch of the chinook as it blew over the ridges —  these longings were almost irresistible in the oppressiveness of my New York City rooming house. (William O. Douglas)The main target of the fur trade initially was the beaver, whose soft fur was hammered and compressed to make felt hats for the European gentry. (Miron Heinselman)In winter, to keep out the pervasive Low Countries chill, men and women alike donned elegant fur-lined dressing gowns that were worn over all the other clothing at home and at the place of work. (Mike Dash) Practice Exercise (a) A cool evening breeze brought with it the smell of _____ trees and wild honeysuckle.(b) Beavers need a thick _____ coat to maintain an adequate body temperature in winter. Answers to Practice Exercise (a) A cool evening breeze brought with it the smell of  fir  trees and wild honeysuckle. (b) Beavers need a thick  fur  coat to maintain an adequate body temperature in winter.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Free Essay Example, 1000 words

But the fact is that there are no safe levels of alcohol use during pregnancy. Of course, binge drinking during pregnancy may cause more problems to the fetus, but even single peg of alcohol consumption can cause adverse effects on the fetus. Symptoms Poor growth while the baby is in the womb and after birth, Decreased muscle tone and poor coordination, Delayed development and problems in three or more major areas: thinking, speech, movement, or social skills, Heart defects, Problems with the face, including: Narrow, small eyes with large epicanthal folds, Small head, Small upper jaw, Smooth groove in upper lip, Smooth and thin upper lip etc are some of the major symptoms of FAS (Fetal alcohol syndrome, 2011). Many other problems facing by the current children during their childhood are believed to be caused by the drinking habits of their mothers during pregnancy. Treatments Effective treatments or cure for FAS are still not available. The best and only way to prevent FAS is to stay away from drinking habits at least during pregnancy. Even though medical science has advanced a lot, there is no medication or treatment available to eliminate or reduce FAS related problems. We will write a custom essay sample on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now However, early diagnosis of FAS may help to give proper educational classes and essential social services to children with FAS. Early interventions found to be more effective in the management of FAS. Special care and attention should be provided to children with FAS to develop properly. It should be noted that FAS children may behave abnormally on many occasions. Patience and temperament from the parts of mothers, family members and the society are necessary to help the children to come out of FAS. Eaton, et al. (2011) pointed out that â€Å"As there is no cure for an FASD, preventive activities are currently the only successful approach to reduce the risk of an Alcohol-Exposed Pregnancy (AEP) through screening, education, or brief interventions of childbearing age women† (Eaton, et al. 2011, p. 260). Recommendations for preventing FAS â€Å"Despite warnings by the U. S. Surgeon General and others, childbearing age women continue to drink at high levels, even in pregnancy† (Eaton, et al. 2011, p. 260). In other words, many pregnant women are not taking the warnings of healthcare professionals against taking alcohol. Child bearing is a basic right for every woman. However, it should be noted that no woman has moral, ethical or legal right to deliberately engage in activities which may cause harm to their fetus.

Essay on The Discovery Of The Structure Of DNA - 1526 Words

James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA, but only by drawing on the work of many scientists who came before them. (Maddox, 2003) In 1944, Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty published â€Å"Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types†, which was the first scientific work to identify DNA as the molecule that carried genetic information, and became a breakthrough at that time. (Avery, Macleod, McCarty, 1944) Before Avery and coworkers published their paper, there was very little interest in DNA among scientists in the field of genetics. Very little was known about DNA, however, early analyses suggested that it was a very simple molecule, at least in†¦show more content†¦Griffith worked with two strains of the bacteria pneumococcus, named according to the appearance the colonies grown from each strain. The S-strain possessed a polysaccharide coat and formed large, smooth colon ies. The R-strain did not have a polysaccharide covering, and grew in small, rough colonies. In addition to influencing colony appearance, the polysaccharide shell also protected the S-strain from the host immune response. Griffith noticed that mice injected with the S-strain eventually became ill and died, while mice injected with the R-strain suffered no ill effects. He also noted that S-strain pneumococci that had been killed by heat caused no harm. But Griffith’s breakthrough came when he found that mice injected with a mixture of live R-strain and heat-killed S-strain died from infection. Furthermore, he was able to isolate live S-strain bacteria from these dead mice. From this, Griffith was able to conclude that the heat-killed cells contained a â€Å"transforming code† capable of changing the harmless R-strain bacteria into the pathogenic S-strain. Francis Crick and James Watson are recognized as the main scientists involved in the identification of DNA and its structure, which is one of the most important discoveries of the twentieth century. However, were it not for Rosalind Franklin, Linus Pauling, Colin Avery and Maurice Wilkins, the two men would likely not have madeShow MoreRelatedThe Discovery Of The Structure Of Dna1089 Words   |  5 PagesRosalind Franklin and her Contribution to the Structure of DNA Specific Purpose: To enable the audience to reflect on how Rosalind Franklin contributed to the discovery of the structure of DNA. Introduction: I. Open with Impact: Could you having a significant role in one of the greatest scientific achievements of all time, but not getting credit for it? Not only that, but constantly putting yourself in harm’s way to make this discovery, and eventually dying because of it? II. Thesis Statement:Read MoreThe Discovery Of The Dna Structure2092 Words   |  9 PagesOne of the most important things discovered and understood in biology within science, has been the discovery of the DNA structure. Where DNA is the abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid, though it is more known by nearly everyone simply as DNA. The idea behind DNA is that it is a self-replicating material that can be found in all living organisms, especially humans. The structure of DNA was solved in the year 1953, and was solved by four very important scientists who were; Francis Crick, RosalindRead More Discovery of the Structure of DNA Essay2374 Words   |  10 PagesDiscovery of the Structure of DNA On the last day of February in 1953, according to James Watson, Francis Crick announced to the patrons of the Eagle Pub in Cambridge, â€Å"We have discovered the secret of life† (Watson 115, 1980). 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There are four main scientists who contributed their lives, knowledge, and ambitions to find out the DNA doubleRead MoreBiology : Structure Of Dna818 Words   |  4 PagesBiology: Structure of DNA The article â€Å"The Structure of DNA: Cooperation and Competition† by the Understanding Science team (the author is Stephanie Stuart, with the editor Anna Thanukos, and the web producers David Smith and Josh Frankel) begins with the history of the discovery of DNA. â€Å"During the early 1950s, the intellectual journeys of a bird biologist, an expert on the structure of coal, a designer of underwater mines, and a nuclear physicist intersected, resulting—not in aRead MoreThe Structure Of Dn Cooperation And Competition949 Words   |  4 PagesThe Structure of DNA: Cooperation and Competition PRACTICAL PROBLEM: The question â€Å"How do living things pass on their traits to offspring† had long been on the minds of researchers. CURIOSITY: Curiosity was a trait of all those who wondered about that question. Gregor Mendel was just one of those people leading up to the four who discovered the structure of DNA. The four people who discovered the structure of DNA built upon the EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY of others: At the time of this discoveryRead MoreThe Importance of the Structure of Dna1582 Words   |  7 PagesKa Zhu The Importance of the Structure of DNA Understanding ideas at a macroscopic scale is simple. Looking at a clock, observing and understanding the movements of the hands over the numbered surface are, in essence, all one requires to use the device. In order for innovation to occur, it is imperative to understand the inner workings of the device on a microscopic scale to modulate its properties. Such is the case for many innovations in science, from the heat engine to penicillin, and is noRead MoreCharles Crick And James Watson On The Structure Of The Complex Molecule Known As Dna Essay1293 Words   |  6 Pageswas awarded to Francis Crick and James Watson for formulating the structure of the complex molecule known as DNA. These discoveries were a direct result of the accumulation of many scientists’ earlier analyses and findings of the DNA. Before Watson and Crick had developed the double-helical structure of DNA, indication of this genetic material had been revealed around the 1850’s. During the century fol lowing the first evidence of DNA, subsequent researchers had been eagerly examining the physical andRead MoreHeredity And Its Impact On The Field Of Heredity976 Words   |  4 Pagesto occur, and this happens during meiosis and fertilization. Throughout history we have seen significant discoveries in the field of heredity. Some of the most well known scientists in this field of heredity are Gregor Mendel, Erwin Chargaff, Rosalind Franklin and finally James Watson and Francis Crick. In 1856 to 1863, Gregor Mendel conducted a series of experiments that lead to his discovery of the fundamental laws of genetics. His research was published in 1866 but it wasn’t fully accepted untilRead MoreContributions Of The Structure Of Dna1683 Words   |  7 Pages Contributions to the Discovery of the Structure of DNA In the early 1950s, James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins and Erwin Chargaff had revolutionized molecular biology through their ground-breaking discoveries, which offered an astonishing view of the molecular mechanisms that underlie all lives. The structure of DNA was ultimately revealed by Watson and Crick in 1953. The specific pairings that Watson and Crick postulated allows an accurate copying mechanism for the

Management of Asthma in Children Amelia Taylor †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Management of Asthma in Children. Answer: Introduction: Asthma is a common chronic disease in most of industrialised nations and is predominant in children of family with historyatopy. (Andr Andrew, 2013; Andrew, 2015).The associated symptoms of asthma are aggravated by various factors including viral infections, exposure to allergens and poor quality of air (Bekmezien et al, 2013). In the present scenario Amelia Taylor has been presented to ED with history of asthma, although her mother denies any. Medical history reveals treating child for same in past few months and discussing management plan with parents (care takers). The child is presented with rhinorrhoea and is responding with only yes or no due to anxiety and improper breathing pattern due to bilateral expiratorywheezes which is noted on auscultation. With this information on the patient two primary concerns (priority problems) are Ineffective breathing pattern (Problem 1) Management of Asthma (Problem 2) The need for prioritising the above has been dealt in detail below. Ineffective breathing pattern (Problem 1): Asthma is characterised by difficulty in breathing because of respiratory tract infections, allergic reactions and bronchospasm. Bronchospasm result due to allergic reactions which elicit production of IgE mediated antibodies triggering early phase of reaction. This induces rise in activation of airway mast cells and macrophages which release pro-inflammatory mediators such as eicosanoids, ROS and histamine which induce smooth muscle contraction, mucus secretion and vasodilatation which results in accumulation of mucus thereby blocking the airway (Britto et al, 2014; Danielle et al, 2017; Federico Kanwalijeet, 2013; Ronit Susanna, 2011) Pathophysiology of Asthma: Airway narrowing is associated always with bronchial hyper responsiveness leading to mucosal oedema and mucus plugs Wheezing and cough will increase in night or early morning making difficult to breath (Susan et al, 2013) Cytokine imbalance with T helper type 2 cells promotes IgE synthesis leading to allergic reactions leading to asthma (Andrew Sejal, 2010) Studies reveals infection with mycobacterium, hepatitis reduces risk of asthma. An increased use of fish in diet also reduces risk of asthma (Susan, 2017) Asthma is differentiating into mild and severe depending on oxygen saturation, wheezing and cough. A nonspecific respiratory disease can also present similar symptoms but a well trained professional and nurse can differentiate between two easily (Susan et al, 2013) Epidemiology: Asthma is leading cause for hospitalization in Canadian children The prevalence of asthma is 10 times more in developed countries in comparision to developing countries Asthma is leading cause for school absenteeism in children of USA The prevalence of asthma is more in blacks and hispanics in comparison to others Rapid urbanization is paving way for increased number of asthma cases From the given details and history it is evident that the child is suffering from too much cough and breathlessness in night and has been aided by ventolin and paracetomol to ease the situation in morning without any positive results. This may be due to the bronchospasm in which airways are constricted and filled with mucus due to allergic reactions. The child still suffers from breathlessness and anxiety with oxygen saturation90%. She is also presented with cough (at night) lasting for more than a week worsened by cold weather and running nose. This is one of the common symptom associated with asthma. Differential counting of blood components will enumerate rise in level of eosinophils and IgE antibodies (Sills et al, 2011; Ullmann et al, 2013; Zemek et al, 2012). As its well documented in medical history of patient, she has wheezing problem and unable to speak fluently which is an associated symptom in case of asthma In this present patient scenario, the nurse first has to provide care for easing the breath which can be aided by administration of bronchodilators along with humid oxygen. After comforting with breathing, nurse has to document the vitals and basic information and has to review the medical history for recent medication and past complications. As it is always said, a nurse should have thorough knowledge about the clinical condition before making decision. The child is suffering from severe type of asthma as given by classification of asthma (increase breathlessness, oxygen saturation90%) In this case patient is child with less than 5 years of age which makes tougher to strict to medication and due to patients past experience in hospital she is in anxiety which is correlating factor with respect to asthma The nurse once recorded with heart rate, respiration rate, bp and other vitals, they have to be continuously monitored at regular intervals so that any significant variation (deviating from normal) is taken care discussing the situation with health professionals The child initially has been prescribed with salbutamol puffs (bronchodilators) until further review, during which vital such as heart rate has to be continuously observed since salbutamol has been found to have adverse effect on cardiac function Since the patient vomited soon after consuming prednisolone, hydrocortisone has been administered through IV to reduce inflammations and allergic reactions if any Since the patients age is less than 5, use of spirometer test may not be advised and if the patient is asymptomatic spirometer cant be employed for testing Analyse the peak flow monitor value to suspect severity of asthma If asthma is mild can go for chemotherapy to regulate further worsening of situation and if situation is severe then immediate actions are need to tae care of patient A nurse with thorough knowledge of asthma will look into eosinophil count or IgE level in blood with any explanation for the variation (if any) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD) also presents some of the features presented by asthma, well trained nurse can differentiate between both On the evidence based practising, any increase and decrease in heart rate, bp, respiration rate must be immediately taken care to avoid further worsening of the situation Nurse has to demonstrate comprehensive skill in both physical and mental health, ethnic and cultural dimensions A nurse to client (patient) relation should be based on trust and mutual understanding and in the meantime nurse should not interfere with cultural or ethnic belief and should not impose any of her decisions to follow without discussing with patient or care taker Nurse will provide holistic treatment to patient with proper discussion with care taker and health professionals regarding the uses and adverse effects of the medication being administered. Management of Asthma (Problem 2): Asthma similar to diabetes mellitus cant be cured but can be managed to increase the quality of life of patient. Management of asthma requires strict dedication towards medication or pharmacotherapy failing which may increase the severity of disease worsening the condition (Campbell, 2011; Fleming et al, 2013). Patient and the care takers should be advisedon used of medicationsand devises such as nebulisers, spacers and metered dose of inhalers Patients condition should be discussed with care takers along with the precautions to be taken and dos and donts with respect to asthma In the present scenario, patient is a child of 4 years of age with anxiety and fears for hospitalisation because of previous bad experience. The care takers should be well educated in this case so that they can keep an eye on medications and devices used by the child and they also can assist in the severe cases or if the diseased condition get worse. Although medical history with previous admission of the patient clearly indicates the discussions and plan to be taken with respect to disease, patients mother fails to memorise it claiming she never had such problems. Regular check-up and follow up to the hospital will avoid readmission to hospital due to disease severity. Improved living style and getting less exposed to allergens will favour the recovery. In this condition patient is suffering from running nose with light fever, which can be attributed to allergic reactions caused by hay leading to hay fever. In the present scenario the child has been diagnosed for asthma for past 6 months and her care taker fails to manage the condition properly which resulted in worsening condition with rhinorrhoea and a frequent moist cough. The condition was elevated by the cold weather and wheezing and patient mother ignorant of underlying causes and her past medical history (Antoinette et al, 2015; Britto et al, 2014; Fitzgerald, 2011; Ortiz-AlvarezMikrogianakis, 2012). During the present hospitalisation, nurse has to intervene to educate patient and her care taker regarding the management of asthma by increasing health literacy of her mother. She has to be educated with use of the spacers and nebulisers in case of difficulty in breathing for her child, and also to maintain the strict regime of over the medication which helps in further complications. The nurse should intervene with things and food to avoid, management of the asthma outside hospital by giving suitable precautions. Although pharmacotherapy doesnt cure the illness it assists it managing the disease with reduced complications. If the conditions of asthma are not shown continuously for more than three months then step down can be considered (Fleming et al, 2012; Kathleen et al, 2016; Sills et al, 2011; Ullmann, 2013) The literature has well documented the fact that tobacco smoke exaggerates asthma, by making child a passive smoker, the smooth muscle of trachea contract creating further inconvenience to child. If any in home is a smoker, nurse should ask them to practise strictly outside home or to avoid. Further child and care take has to be educated regarding the complications associated with the change in weather such as cold and foggy conditions which are not suitable for the patient. The food allergens or any other household mould allergens has to be checked along with allergy to pets.Regular check-ups and follow up must be strictly maintained to assess the level of severity underlying with disease. Continuous follow helps in managing illness more effectively and if the condition has not improved or medication has shown any adverse effects, then the nurse can discuss with health professional for further treatment. The asthma if not managed properly then may consider step up 1 step and alterna te diagnosis can be considered if any of adverse effects have been visualised. The condition of the patient should be assessed for every 2-6 weeks for any benefits. If the condition is still not controlled then short course of corticosteroids can be considered with follow up for every two weeks to assess disease severity (Andrew Sejal, 2010; Jacqui, 2016, Kathleen et al, 2016; Zemek et al, 2012) Since the patient in this case is child (4 years) she has to avoid comorbidities such as obesity, rhino-sinusitis, dysfunctional breathing, and psychosocial problems which results in elevating asthma conditions. Nurse can intervene with multifaceted treatment if the disease severity increases. Challenges in paediatric evidence based practise: Need for developing a system where the errors are reported without blame which assists in reducing number of errors in future aspects To provide better education and training for the nurses to reduce the errors Bridging the gap between scientific evidence for practise and application of same in clinical care of the patients Management of pain very much difficult and which vary the dosage calculation Care for the patient is provided in complex system where time is limited which affects decision making ability of the nurses. Thorough knowledge and training on same will reduce number of errors and increase capacity of nurse to make quick decision depending on the best evidence available at that time In the difficult situations, nurses has to practise based on the best evidence available along with discussion with patients care taker and their preferences. This evidence based practise of nursing maximises the clinical outcome especially with concern to paediatric patients and their families. Improving communication between the groups of same hospital or between institutions will enhance the understanding and management of the disease in severe conditions. Conclusion: The child has been presented with the problem of breathlessness along with the complications associated with the asthma. Immediate care for the patient to be provided for easing breathlessness aided by Salbutamol 6 puffs via spacer and oral dose of prednisolone to reduce inflammation and allergic reactions if any. The child has asthma complication for past six months and even after the nurse has discussed with the care taker (mother) and asked for proper management plan of the same, her mother fails and claims her child has no previous symptoms of asthma (The symptoms, medication and discussion has been well documented in the medical history). The condition is worsened by her rhinorrhoea and a frequent moist cough with anxiety and fear to get hospitalised due to past bad experience. The immediate care although provided through bronchodilators further the nurse has to intervene with the patient on easing many of associated complications such as management of disease, dos and donts. The patient and her mother has to be educated for the complications associated with asthma and precautions to minimise the complications. Also, along with this parents and child has to be made well acquainted with use of strict regime of the medications and use of devices such as inhalers and spacers under difficult conditions. A thorough increase in health literacy of the patient and her care taker will reduce further complications and readmission to the hospital for the severity of the same disease. References: Andr, S., Andrew, C.M. (2013). Outpatient Management of Asthma in Children. Clinical Medicine Insights: Pediatrics, 7, 1324. doi: 10.4137/CMPed.S7867 Andrew, B. (2015). Diagnosis and management of asthma in children, clinical review, BMJ, 350:h996 doi: 10.1136/bmj.h996. Antoinette, G., Barbara, K., Wendy, B., Diane, K.M., Susan, R., Lynne, M., Kathy C.E., Mullen, A., Karen, R., Donald, A. (2015). National standards for asthma self-management education. Annals of Allergy Asthma Immunology,114, 178-186. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2014.12.014 Bekmezian, A., Fee, C., Bekmezian, S., Maselli, J.H., Weber, E. (2013). Emergency department crowding and younger age are associated with delayed corticosteroid administration to children with acute asthma. Pediatric Emergency Care, 29, 107581. Britto, M.T., Vockell, A.L., Munafo, J.K., Schoettker, P.J., Wimberg, J.A., Pruett, R.(2014). Improving outcomes for underserved adolescents with asthma. Pediatrics, 133, 418-427. Campbell, J.D. (2011). Managed care opportunities for improving asthma care. American Journal of Managed Care, 17(3), 90-96. Clinical Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation and Management of Adults and Children with Asthma retrieved May 7, 2017, from New York State Department of Health website, www.health.ny.gov Danielle, K. M., Nadia, K.,Courtney, M. R.(2017). Pediatric asthma severity score is associated with critical care interventions. Retrospective study, World Journal of ClinicalPediatrics, 8, 6(1), 34-39. DOI: 10.5409/wjcp.v6.i1.34 Federico, F, N., Kanwaljeet, J. S. (2013). Severe Acute Asthma Exacerbation in Children: A Stepwise Approach for Escalating Therapy in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit. Journal ofPediatric Pharmacology and Therapeutics,18(2), 88104 Fitzgerald, J. M. (2011). Targeting lung attacks,Thorax, 66, 365-366. Fleming, L., Tsartsali, L., Wilson, N., Regamey, N., Bush, A. (2013). Longitudinal relationship between sputum eosinophils and exhaled nitric oxide in children with asthma. American Journal of Respiratoryand Critical Care Medicine,188, 400-402. Fleming, L., Wilson, N., Regamey, N., Bush, A. (2012). Use of sputum eosinophil counts to guide management in children with severe asthma. Thorax,67, 193-198. Jacqui, W. (2016). Processed meat is linked to asthma symptoms, study finds. BMJ,355, i6807 doi: 10.1136/bmj.i6807 Kathleen, B., Sabah, I., Su-Lin, S., Jennifer, F., James, C., Paul, C. M. (2016). Improving timeliness for acute asthma care for paediatric ED patients using a nurse driven intervention: an interrupted time series analysis. BMJ Quality Improvement Reports, 5:u216506.w5621. doi:10.1136/bmjquality.u216506.w5621 Ortiz-Alvarez, Mikrogianakis, A. (2012). Canadian Paediatric Society, Acute Care Committee. Managing the paediatric patient with an acute asthma exacerbation. Paediatric Child Health, 17(5), 251-256. Andrew, B., Sejal, S. (2010). Management of severe asthma in children. Lancet. 376(9743), 814825. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61054-9. Ronit, H., Susanna, C. R. (2011).Pediatric asthma: natural history, assessment and treatment. Mt. Sinai Journal of Medicine, 78(5), 645660. doi:10.1002/msj.20285. Sills, M. R., Fairclough, D., Ranade, D., Kahn, M. G.(2011). Emergency department crowding in associated with decreased quality of care for children with acute asthma. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 57, 191200. Susan, L., Janis, B., Smith, Karen, C. (2013). Chapter 15. Paediatric Safety and Quality. Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses,1, 405-434. Susan, M. (2017). High dose fish oil supplements in late pregnancy reduce asthma in offspring, finds study. BMJ, 356:i6861 doi: 10.1136/bmj.i6861 Ullmann, N., Bossley, C. J., Fleming, L., Silvestri, M., Bush, A., Saglani S. (2013). Blood eosinophil counts rarely reflect airway eosinophilia in children with severe asthma. Allergy, 68, 402-406. Zemek, R., Plint, A., Osmond, M.H. (2012). Triage nurse initiation of corticosteroids in pediatric asthma is associated with improved emergency department efficiency. Pediatrics,129, 67180.

Literary Analysis Ransom of Red Chief Essay Example

Literary Analysis Ransom of Red Chief Essay What is the outcome of a scheme devised by two desperate men in need of money? The outcome can be just preposterous, as in the comical short story â€Å"The Ransom of Red Chief† by O. Henry. In this story, Sam and Bill are two-bit con men who need money to pull off a scheme. The con men are faced with unexpected obstacles that cause them to take extreme measures to obtain what they want. The author uses literary devices such as figurative language, allusions, and irony to create a humorous and amusing tale. One literary technique the author uses throughout the story to illustrate comedy is figurative language. This paints vivid pictures for the reader on what is occurring in essential scenes. Bill said, â€Å"the boy put up a fight like a welter-weight cinnamon bear.†(pg.) This is a humorous simile that gives the reader a clear picture of a small boy putting such a struggle that he resembles a professional fighter. This simile also refers to a red colored bear of North America that is wild and ferocious. The combination illustrates quite a fight. Also, when Johnny asks to keep on playing a â€Å"look comes† into Bill’s eyes â€Å"like a rabbit’s when you catch it in a trap† (pg.55) This illustrates how poor Bill feels about having to play with Johnny again. The continued belittling and badgering by the boy and the surrender that Bill feels are expounded upon when the boy speaks.The dialect and language used in the text provide humor and exaggeration to the actions and tone of the characters. Furthermore, another way the author establishes humor is through the utilization of allusions. The ideas and emotions created by allusions contribute to what the author is conveying. When Bill recuperates from Johnnys assault with the slingshot, Bill states that his â€Å"favorite Biblical character is â€Å"King Herod† (pg.53).This allusion is a reference to King Herod, who once ordered the deaths of all boys under the age of two. This offers the re We will write a custom essay sample on Literary Analysis Ransom of Red Chief specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Literary Analysis Ransom of Red Chief specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Literary Analysis Ransom of Red Chief specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer